Cognitive Reserve Can Be Induced Through Environmental Enrichment in Aged Organisms: Testing the Hypothesis in Animal Models

Edvaldo Soares^1*orcid, Luã Carlos Valle Dantas^2orcid, Rafael Antonio Peres Borba^3orcid, Alex Bacadini França^4orcid

¹PhD. Neurosciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory-LaNeC, Avenue Hygino Muzzi Filho, 737, Brazil

²Doctor of Psychology, Faculdade Cristo Rei-FACCREI, Brazil

³Medical student, Faculdade de Medicina de Marília-FAMEMA, Brazil

⁴PhD. Psychology Federal University of São Carlos-UFSCar Laboratory of Human Development and Cognition - LADHECO Washington Luís km 235 - SP-310, Brazil

^*Corresponding authors: Edvaldo Soares, PhD. Neurosciences, São Paulo State University-UNESP, Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory-LaNeC, Avenue Hygino Muzzi Filho, 737, Brazil.

Received: 30 August 2025; Accepted: 04 September 2025; Published: 06 November 2025

Introduction

The preservation of cognitive capacity in aging is one of the greatest challenges in science. Cognitive processing, including memory processing in humans [1-3] and non-humans [4, 5], begins to decline [6-8]. Cognitive deficits resulting from aging can be attributed to the reduction of labile synaptic structures in the brain [9], leading to decreased plasticity [10] . Studies reporting changes in brain structure and function have long indicated that aging leads to brain atrophy [11-15], particularly in the prefrontal córtex [16, 17] and hippocampus [18-20]. However, despite evidence of the negative impacts of aging, considerable heterogeneity in cognitive trajectories is observed in elderly individuals, even in those with degenerative brain pathologies [21], which can overshadow the non-pathological aging process [22].

One hypothesis to explain this heterogeneity in cognitive trajectories is that of "cognitive reserve" (CR) [23-25]. CR is a theoretical construct proposing the existence of a capacity, shaped by innate or genetic differences and life experiences, that exerts a protective function against cognitive decline due to degenerative brain pathologies or normal aging [22, 26]. In other words, CR consists of the cognitive resources accumulated and utilized at a given time, determining an individual's general cognitive capacity [27]. Related to CR is the concept of brain reserve (BR) [26, 28], which refers to neurobiological resources, such as brain size and cortical thickness, available at a specific moment [27].

While BR assessment appears more objective, CR assessment is less straightforward. Educational level [29, 30], despite controversial results [31, 32] and limitations [26], has commonly been used as a parameter for CR, along with tests aimed at assessing general cognitive ability (GCA) [33].

Despite the difficulties that the CR concept still presents, several questions arise:

1. Is there the possibility of a non-invasive intervention that promotes CR and induces plasticity, acting as a protective factor against cognitive decline from pathology or normal aging, and serving as a basis for interventions in the elderly?
2. If there is a method to stimulate CR, when should it be initiated?

iii. Would stimulation, even if started in later life, yield significant improvements in cognitive performance, indicating CR induction?

Assuming that an intervention promoting CR, which acts both as a protective and interventional factor, is possible, and that stimulation should ideally begin in childhood, positive results can still be observed when initiated later. However, given the complexity of testing these hypotheses in humans, due to factors such as general health, mental health, culture, diet, physical activity, and social interaction, we opted to test these hypotheses at a basic behavioral level using animal models.

To explore these questions and test our hypotheses, we adopted the environmental enrichment (EE) model. EE is defined as the addition of diverse social, physical, and somatosensory stimuli to the environment [34]. This model was selected because previous research has demonstrated that EE has positive neurophysiological impacts, promoting structural and neurochemical changes, including increased neuronal body size, enhanced glial activity, altered metabolic activity, and neurogenesis in the hippocampus, as well as an increase in dendrite number and length, which supports synapse formation [35-40]. EE was also chosen because it has been shown to positively affect learning and memory [37, 40, 41], contributing to the preservation of spatial memory [42, 43]. In this study, spatial memory assessment was considered a model for evaluating CR in animals, including humans [44].

This research aims to investigate, based on the environmental enrichment model, whether cognitive reserve, assessed through the spatial memory paradigm, is limited to early life and persists throughout the lifespan, and whether environmental enrichment applied only during aging can also induce cognitive reserve in animal models.

Methods

Animals

Male Wistar rats from the bioterium of the Faculty of Medicine of the Universidade Estadual Paulista were used (n = 48). The experiment began after weaning, when the animals were 40 days old. They were housed socially for 46 days. After this period, the animals were randomly distributed into four groups of equal size: childhood control group (G1), childhood experimental group (G2), elderly control group (G3), and elderly experimental group (G4). Animals in the control groups [G1 (n = 12) and G3 (n = 12)] were not exposed to environmental enrichment (EE), while those in the experimental groups [G2 (n = 12) and G4 (n = 12)] were exposed to EE. The age of rats was scaled based on human experimental studies suggesting a 1:30 human-to-rat correspondence [45, 46].

Environmental Enrichment

Environmental enrichment (EE) was implemented using manufactured apparatuses, consisting of two open fields (1.50 m in diameter and 50 cm in height) where various objects were placed and illuminated with black light. This was done to: (i) respect the rat's wake-sleep cycle [47], (ii) stimulate the animals' movement and exploration, and (iii) avoid unnecessary levels of stress [48-50]. Considering that Wistar rats have nocturnal habits, the environment was illuminated with black light during the experimental procedures. The open fields contained various objects with different textures, shapes, and sizes, some of which produced sounds when moved. The space was designed to provide challenges (e.g., climbing a platform, navigating a tunnel, touching a suspended object) to obtain food.

All animals (n = 48) were deprived of food for 8 hours before the EE sessions, with no water deprivation. During the EE sessions, sunflower seeds were randomly hidden in the environment. Animals not subjected to EE (G1 and G3) also received seeds in their cages located in the animal maintenance room. In each field, six animals were initially placed, and the environments were modified every five sessions (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Experimental Conditions – EE Model (1a: Enriched Open Field – Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory – LaNeC – Unesp – Marília, SP and 1b: Lighting and image acquisition system for experimental condition – Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory – LaNeC – Unesp – Marília, São Paulo, Brazil).**

During the first ten EE sessions, the fields were isolated, and from the 11th session onwards, they were interconnected (Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Interconnected open fields used for EE. The interconnected open fields were used from the 11th EE session onwards. The materials used in the EE camps were changed every five sessions/days. In Phase I, the EE sessions for G2 subjects started at 6:30 PM, respecting the circadian cycle of the research subjects.**

The animals in G2 were exposed to EE for 30 sessions, considered ideal [51,52], from 46 to 83 days of life, while animals in G4 were exposed for 30 sessions from 470 to 517 days of life. The EE sessions began at 6:30 PM, lasting for 120 minutes. After each EE session, the animals were placed back in their respective maintenance boxes (plastic cages with metal bars [33 x 40 x 17 cm]). They were kept in an animal maintenance room suitable in size and cleanliness, maintained at an average temperature of 21º to 23ºC, with an exhaust system. The lighting in the maintenance room was divided into two cycles: 12 hours of light and 12 hours of dark. The rats received a balanced diet developed specifically for rodents (Nuvilab) and had ad libitum access to water.

Spatial Memory Assessment

To assess retention and formation of spatial memory, the Morris Water Maze (MWM) was used [51]. The MWM was constructed from a circular polyethylene box, 200 cm in diameter and 50 cm in depth. The inner walls of the MWM were black to ensure homogeneity. Distal cues (symbols of different colors measuring 20 x 20 cm) were arranged above the water. According to the recommended experimental model [53, 54], the animal should locate a submerged escape platform, constructed of acrylic and measuring 9 cm in diameter, located 1.5 cm below the water level.

To obtain performance measures, the MWM procedure was organized into four stages: (i) recognition pre-training, (ii) pre-training with a visible platform, (iii) training with an invisible platform, and (iv) testing. In the recognition pre-training (i), the animals were individually placed on a platform for 30 seconds to habituate them to the environment and help them understand where the platform, arranged at the same water level, was located. This strategy allowed the animal to form a spatial representation of the environment. For pre-training with a visible platform in MWM (ii), conducted 24 hours after recognition pre-training, the animals were individually placed in the water by hand and submerged until they began to swim independently; at this point, timing commenced.

From that moment, the animal had 60 seconds to climb onto the platform submerged at 1.5 cm. Each animal underwent one attempt in each of the MWM quadrants, totaling four attempts per animal. Training with an invisible platform (iii) occurred 24 hours after the previous procedure. In this training, the same protocol as the pre-training with a visible platform was followed, except that the water was dyed with non-toxic black gouache paint, preventing visual identification of the platform.

The MWM test was conducted eight days after training with the invisible platform, an interval considered sufficient, based on literature data, to evaluate the consolidation of long-term memory [53, 55-58]. The animals underwent one trial in each of the MWM quadrants (total = 4 insertions). Performance was assessed based on the time, in seconds, it took the animal to reach the platform.

The experimental design comprised two phases (P1 and P2), with two tests applied in each phase. In Phase 1, control group 1 (G1) and experimental group 1 (G2) were tested at 111 days of age (Test 1 – T1) and again at 372 days of age (Test 2 – T2). In Phase 2 (P2), all groups (G1, G2, G3, and G4) were tested at 525 days of age (T1) and then subjected to a new test in the MWM at 603 days of age (T2).

Individual results regarding the time to complete the MWM task were manually timed and recorded in the database. The procedures in the MWM were filmed, and the image records were stored in an image bank for analysis using the Field Monitoring System software (Field Monitor Software – Insight – EP 163 adapted for Water Maze by Insight Research and Teaching).

The study was conducted in accordance with the standards recommended by the Brazilian College of Animal Experimentation (COBEA), which defines principles of laboratory animal care, and NIH guidelines for the use of laboratory animals. The ethical protocol aligns with ARRIVE guidelines (ARRIVE 2.0 checklists). The research protocol was approved by the National Council for the Control of Animal Experimentation – COCEA – Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation – Brazil.

Statistics

Data were analyzed using multilevel linear modeling [59, 60]. The outcome was transformed to a logarithmic scale to stabilize the residual variance. Time, on a logarithmic scale, was modeled as a linear function of the trial number at the first level of the model. The intercept and slope of this linear function were modeled to vary for each animal. The expected values of the intercepts and slopes were conditioned on the group, stage, and test in which each set of trials was conducted, as well as their interactions, at the second level of the model [60].

The model was adjusted using Bayesian inference, utilizing the Stan Hamiltonian Monte Carlo Sampler - version 2.19.2 [61]. The prior distributions for the parameters were chosen to be weakly informative, reducing their influence on the inferences made [62].

Eight chains were simulated with 2,000 iterations each, with 750 iterations for warming up and algorithm adjustment, resulting in a total of 10,000 samples from the posterior distribution. Chain convergence was evaluated using the R-hat mixing coefficient, indicating that all parameters achieved acceptable convergence (below 1.1).

From the coefficients obtained by the multilevel model, contrasts of interest were computed considering the average difference between each line in the adjusted model [60]. These contrasts are presented throughout the results as point estimates based on the mean of the posterior distribution and a 95% credibility interval based on the quantiles of the posterior distribution. Since it is a linear model with the outcome on a logarithmic scale, the exponentiation of the contrast coefficients allows for evaluating the multiplicative increase of the compared groups.

Subsequently, effect sizes were calculated to assess the magnitude of the environmental enrichment (EE) effects in the two phases and their respective tests. Comparisons were made between the groups: G1 x G2; G1 x G4; G3 x G2; G3 x G4; G1 x G3; and G2 x G4. To isolate the effect of the procedures on MWM, effect sizes were calculated by comparing the groups independently in the different phases of the study (G1 x G1; G2 x G2; G3 x G3; and G4 x G4). Hedges’ g (h*) was used to calculate the effect size, considering the independence and small size of the independent groups [63, 64] (small sample bias). Pooled effect sizes were determined with standardized mean differences (SMDs). An interpretation similar to Cohen's was used for effect parameters: 0.2 - 0.49 - small effect; 0.5 - 0.79 moderate effect; and above 0.8 large effect. The overlap was calculated considering a 95% confidence interval (CI) [65-67].

Results

The data presented in Table 1 show the average time in seconds to complete the MWM task for each group (G1, G2, G3, and G4) in the two phases of the study.

Table 1: Average time in seconds in MWM for each of the four groups in two phases.

The data indicate that groups exposed to an enriched environment (EE) demonstrated a difference in task completion speed compared to non-exposed groups. Subjects in the EE exposure condition during Phase I, on average, completed the task in less time than those who were not exposed. Subsequently, in Phase II, subjects exposed to EE, regardless of exposure age, completed the task in less time on average than non-exposed subjects (Table 1). Figure 3 displays the estimates based on the mean of the posterior distribution and a 95% credibility interval derived from the quantiles of the posterior distribution for each subject group.

Figure 3: Estimates based on the mean of the posterior distribution and a 95% credibility interval derived from the quantiles of the posterior distribution for each group of subjects.

Inspection of Figure 3 suggests that in Phase I (P=1), G2 performed better than G1 in both the first test (T1) (Mean = -1.07, 95% CI = [-1.4, -0.74]) and the second (T2) (Mean = -1.34, 95% CI = [-1.68, -1.01]), indicating that G2 completed the task, considering the average across four attempts, in approximately 34.3% and 26.2% of the average time taken by G1 subjects for each test, respectively, in the first phase.

G2's superior performance over G1 was consistent in Phase II (P=2), in both tests (T1: Mean = -1.58, 95% CI = [-1.97, -1.19]; T2: Mean = -1.14, 95% CI = [-1.52, -0.76]). The contrasts indicate that the magnitude of the performance difference is similar to that observed in Phase I (P=1), with G2 requiring, on average, 20.6% and 31.9% of the time taken by G1 to complete the task in tests T1 and T2, respectively.

Similarly, G4 also showed better average performance in task resolution time when compared to both G3 (T1: Mean = -1.15, 95% CI = [-1.56, -0.74]; T2: Mean = -0.97, 95% CI = [-1.38, -0.56]) and G1 (T1: Mean = -1.53, 95% CI = [-1.94, -1.13]; T2: Mean = -0.73, 95% CI = [-1.19, -0.29]). Compared to G3, G4 required, on average, 31.8% and 38.0% of the time needed; performance was similarly enhanced when compared to G1, with G4 requiring 21.7% and 47.9% of the time taken by G1 in each test.

To evaluate the impact of EE exposure at different developmental stages, the difference between G2 and G1 was compared to that between G4 and G3 (i.e., the gain in task completion time when experimental groups are compared to their respective control groups).

Comparing the difference between G2 and G1 in the first test (T1) of Phase I (P=1) with the difference between G4 and G3 in the first test (T1) of Phase II (P=2), the difference between these was nearly zero (Mean = -0.08, 95% CI = [-0.61, 0.45]). The magnitude of the difference remains similar when comparing the difference between G2 and G1 in the first test (T1) of Phase II (P=2) (Mean = 0.02, 95% CI = [-0.62, 0.65]).

Similar comparisons, using the second test (T2) in both phases (P=1 and P=2), suggest a slight advantage of G2 over G4 (Comparison of performance in P=1 and P=2: Mean = 0.37, 95% CI = [-0.16, 0.91]; Comparison in P2: Mean = 0.17, 95% CI = [-0.39, 0.73]). However, the uncertainty in these estimates prevents concluding a significant difference between groups. These results are depicted in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Representation of the average completion times for the experimental (G2 and G4) and control (G1 and G3) groups in the MWM task across two phases and respective tests.

In addition, Hedge's g (g*) was used to calculate the size of the EE effect in conjunction with spatial memory assessment procedures in the MWM (pre-training recognition, visible platform pre-training, invisible platform training, and tests) for the groups (G1, G2, G3, and G4) across both study phases. The results are shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Effect size of environmental enrichment combined with spatial memory measurement procedures in the MWM across two phases.

The data indicate that environmental enrichment (EE) combined with spatial memory assessment procedures in the MWM produced a large effect size, with overlap below 50%, when comparing groups G1 and G2 in the respective tests of phases 1 and 2, as well as when comparing groups G2 and G3 and G3 and G4 in Phase 2 tests. For control groups (G1 and G3), effect size was moderate, with overlap above 50% for Test 1 – Phase 2, and small, with overlap above 90%, for Test 2 – Phase 2. However, the comparison between experimental groups (G2 and G4) indicated a small effect size with overlap above 50% for Test 1 and a large effect size with overlap below 50% for Test 2.

Furthermore, to isolate the effect size magnitude, Hedge's g was calculated for paired comparisons within groups across the two phases and respective tests (Table 3).

Table 3: Effect size related to MWM procedures based on paired comparisons between groups.

Results suggest that MWM spatial memory assessment procedures, when isolated and analyzed through intragroup comparison across study phases and tests, generally produced small effects (G1 x G1 / P1T1 x P1T2, P1T2 x P2T2; G2 x G2 / P1T1 x P1T2, P1T1 x P2T1, P1T2 x P2T2; G3 x G3 / P2T1 x P2T2, and G4 x G4 / P2T1 x P2T2). Moderate effects were found in G1 x G1 / P2T1 x P2T2 and G2 x G2 / P2T1 x P2T2 comparisons, with large effect sizes for G1 x G1 in the first phase (P1T1 x P2T1 and P1T2 x P2T1). However, these effects were negative, indicating performance declines in the analyzed phases/tests (Table 1). Performance declines were also observed for G1 in P1T1 x P1T2 and for G2 across phases P1T1 x P2T1, P1T2 x P2T1, and P1T2 x P2T2.

Discussion

This study examined the effects of environmental enrichment (EE) on spatial memory performance in both young and aged rats. We used this paradigm to assess whether cognitive reserve (CR), evaluated through a spatial memory paradigm, is limited to early life stages or can be extended throughout life. Additionally, we explored whether EE introduced solely during aging could also induce CR.

The findings from the initial phase of the experiment (P=1/T1) show that EE applied during childhood generates immediate, positive impacts. These results align with the brain reserve (BR) hypothesis, which suggests that EE induces structural and functional remodeling of synapses, thereby enhancing learning and memory capabilities [68-74] and providing neuroprotective benefits [75-77]. Beyond these immediate effects, data from the first phase (P=1/T2, P=2/T1, and T2) further indicate that the benefits of EE are long-lasting [78-81]. These observations support the hypothesis that EE promotes brain plasticity and serves as a protective factor against cognitive decline associated with both normal and pathological aging [82, 83]. Notably, the decline in spatial memory was less pronounced in rats exposed to EE (Table 1), highlighting the importance of early-life stimulation.

A critical question in this research was whether EE initiated in later life stages could still lead to significant cognitive improvements, implying CR induction. Our results suggest this is indeed possible, as there was minimal difference in performance between rats exposed to EE in childhood and those receiving EE only during aging. This finding underscores the effectiveness of late-life EE, supporting the hypothesis of CR formation even in aged brains, as EE appears to induce both structural [84, 85] and functional [86, 87] modifications, thus contributing to BR.

The effect size measures reinforce the role of EE in CR formation, whether started in childhood or during aging, suggesting immediate and sustained cognitive benefits.

In summary, these findings enhance our understanding of the importance of EE from childhood and even in later life stages for CR development. Despite the complexities of human aging, our results offer insights into potential preventive and intervention strategies to mitigate cognitive decline associated with normal and pathological aging.

Limitations

The primary limitation of this study stems from the attrition inherent in longitudinal designs, which led to a reduction in the sample size due to mortality. Initially, 48 subjects were included, but only 32 remained by the study's end. This reduction posed challenges in conducting statistical comparisons using standard tests (e.g., Mann-Whitney Test, Student's t-Test). To address this, we employed multilevel linear modeling for data analysis. A potential solution to mitigate this limitation would involve using larger samples, accounting for an expected attrition rate of around 30% in longitudinal research.

It is also noteworthy that the literature presents various EE protocols. While some studies implement continuous EE exposure, others apply stimulation for limited periods each day [88-93]. This methodological variance, as Bennett et al. (2006) noted, complicates comparisons across studies. To refine future evaluations, incorporating groups exposed to EE continuously (24 hours) from childhood to old age, as well as groups with EE only at specific life stages, would be beneficial [94].

Conclusions

This study confirms that EE is an effective, non-pharmacological tool for exploring behavioral and neurobiological processes in animal models of lifespan, brain dysfunction, and injury. Our findings indicate that EE promotes CR and enhances spatial memory in Wistar rats, both when applied during childhood and later in life. These results support the notion that CR is not fixed but rather dynamic, continuing to develop across the lifespan. This implies that interventions started in later life stages can still enhance CR, potentially alleviating age-related cognitive decline.

Clinically, our findings underscore the value of integrating EE strategies in both early and later life stages to address cognitive decline linked to aging. Healthcare professionals might consider recommending EE-based programs ncluding physical, social, and cognitive activities as part of a holistic approach to managing or preventing dementia and promoting cognitive health. Furthermore, initiatives aimed at improving socioeconomic and educational opportunities may have broad implications for cognitive and brain health as individuals age. Sustained engagement in stimulating environments could help build and maintain CR, thereby reducing dementia’s impact and improving quality of life for aging populations.

It is essential, however, to acknowledge the study's limitations. Further research is needed to confirm these findings in humans and to explore the effectiveness of varied EE programs. Future studies should also examine the role of genetic factors and their interactions with life experiences in CR formation. In conclusion, our findings lay a strong foundation for incorporating EE strategies into clinical practice as a promising approach to combat age-related cognitive decline.

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), grant nº 2013/16427-3.

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Appendix 1

Estimates based on the mean of the posterior distribution and a 95% credibility interval based on the quantiles of the posterior distribution for each group of subjects.